Drinking Water

Introduction

The Drinking Water page is intended to serve as a means of providing the relevant information to the users who wish to perform a QMRA on drinking water

Tap Water Consumption

Table 1: Estimated Combined Directa & Indirectb Community Water Ingestion via EPA Exposure Factors Handbook Population Age Number of Subjects Mean (90% CI) c (mL/person/day) 95th (90% BI) d (mL/person/day) United States People Birth to <1 month 91 184 (117-251) 839 (638-859) 1 to <3 months 253 227 (180-274) 896 (878-1022) 3 to <6 months 428 362 (322-401) 1056 (1043-1170) 6 to <12 months 714 360 (328-392) 1055 (1008-1254) 1 to <2 years 1040 271 (253-289) 837 (754-925) 2 to <3 years 1056 317 (298-337) 877 (828-939) 3 to <6 years 4391 380 (365-394) 1078 (1053-1109) 6 to <11 years 1670 447 (417-476) 1235 (1148-1317) 11 to <16 years 1005 606 (562-651) 1727 (1615-1780) 16 to <18 years 363 731 (633-828) 1983 (1843-2128) 18 to <21 years 389 826 (746-906) 2540 (1908-2934) >21 years 9207 1104 (1074-1134) 2811 (2732-2924) >65 years 2170 1127 (1073-1180) 2551 (2500-2637) All ages 20,607 926 (903-949) 2544 (2500-2584)

^a Direct water: water ingested directly as a beverage.
^b Indirect water: water added in preparation of food or beverages.
^c 90% CI: 90% confidence interval about the estimated means.
^d 90% BI: 90% bootstrap interval about the estimated percentiles.
Source of data: 1994-1996 and 1998 USDA Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII).
(Kahn H.D. and Stralka K., 2009)

Treatment

Disinfection

Chlorine

Table 1: Inactivation of Health-related Microbes in Water by Free Chlorine Microbe Water Cl2 Residual (mg/l) Temp(°C) Time(min) Reduction(%) Estimate Cta References Bacteria pH = 7.0 E. coli BDFb, < 7umc 0.5 5 30 NDd 0.9 Berman et al, 1988 E. coli BDF, > 7ume 0.5 5 30 ND 2.7 Berman et al, 1988 M. chelonei BDF 0.3 25 60 40 >>60 Carson et al, 1978 M. chelonei 0.7 25 60 99.95 46 Carson et al, 1978 M. chelonei BDF 1 ? 60 96 ca.80 Pelletier and Du Moulin, 1987 M. fortuitum BDF 0.15 ? 60 0 >720 Pelletier and Du Moulin, 1987 M. fortuitum BDF 1 ? 30 99.4 ca.28 Pelletier and Du Moulin, 1987 M. intracellulare BDF 0.15 ? 60 70 >>480 Pelletier and Du Moulin, 1987 pH > 7.0 E. coli BDF 0.1 23 3.5 90 0.6 Hass et al, 1986 E. coli BDF 0.1M KNO3 0.1 23 0.8 90 0.15 Hass et al, 1986 Microbe Water Cl2 Residual (mg/l) Temp(°C) Time(min) Reduction(%) Estimate Cta References Viruses pH <= 7.0 Parvo- H-1 PBS 0.2 20 6 99.9 0.53 Churn et al,1984 Parvo- H-1 PBS 0.2 10 11 99.9 0.85 Churn et al,1984 Hepatitis A BDF 0.42-0.06 25 0.7 99.99 ca. 3.0 Grabow et al, 1983 Hepatitis A BDF 0.5 5 6.5 99.99 ca. 1.8 Sobsey et al, 1988 Coliphage MS2 BDF 0.5 5 1.2 99.99 ca. 0.25 Sobsey et al, 1988 pH > 7.0 SA11, disp. BDF ca. 0.5 5 1.1-1.65 99 0.63 Berman and Hoff, 1984 SA11, cell ass. BDF ca. 0.5 5 2.4-4.4 99 1.8 Berman and Hoff, 1984 Human rota effluent 1.1 15 15 40 >>15 Harekah and Butler, 1984 Human rota effluent 2.2 15 10 60 >>15 Harekah and Butler, 1984 Rota, SA11 BDF 0.1 4 0.5 99.9 0.03 Vaughn et al, 1986 Rota, Wa BDF 0.1 4 0.65 99.9 0.03 Vaughn et al, 1986 Rota, SA11 BDF 0.4-0.28 25 1.1 99.99 ca. 4.0 Grabow et al, 1983 Hepatitis A BDF 0.4-0.28 25 2.5 99.99 ca. 5.5 Grabow et al, 1983 Hepatitis A BDF 0.5 5 49.6 99.99 ca. 12.3 Sobsey et al, 1988 Coliphage MS2 BDF 0.5 5 26.5 99.99 ca. 6.9 Sobsey et al, 1988 Microbe Water Cl2 Residual (mg/l) Temp(°C) Time(min) Reduction(%) Estimate Cta References Protozoan Cysts pH <= 7.0 G. lamblia BDF 1.0-4.0 5 3.0-32 90 90-170 Jarroll et al, 1981 G. lamblia BDF 1.5 25 47 99 <15 Jarroll et al, 1981 G. lamblia BDF 2.5 5 19-26 90 ca. 120 Rice et al, 1982 G. lamblia BDF 0.2-3.0 5 99 54-87 Hibler et al, 1987 G. lamblia BDF 0.2-3.0 5 99 83-133 Hibler et al, 1987 G. muris BDF 2.5 5 30 90 >150 Hibler et al, 1987 G. muris BDF 23.8-78.5 f 5 5.7-42.6 99 449-1012 Leahey et al, 1987 G. muris BDF 2.8-7.1 g 25 3.6-16 99 25.5-44.8 Leahey et al, 1987 G. muris BDF 4.4 25 16.3 99 71 Leahey et al, 1987 N. gruberi BDF 2.64 25 2.8 99 7.3 Rubin et al, 1983 N. gruberi BDF 2.2 25 5.2 99 11.4 Rubin et al, 1983 Cryptosporidium gut homog. in PBS 30,000 f 4 18 hr <95 >>18 hrs Campbell et al, 1982 pH > 7.0 G. lamblia BDF 0.2-3.0 5 99 119-192 Hibler et al, 1987 G. muris BDF 2.5 5 48 90 >150 Rice et al, 1982 G. muris BDF 11.1 25 15.6 99 177 Leahey et al, 1987 Naegleria(2 species) 0.5-1.0 25 1-3 hr 99.99 12-18 de Jonckheere and van de voorde, 1976 Acanthamoeba(2 species) 4.0-8.0 25 24 hr 99.99 960-7200 de Jonckheere and van de voorde, 1976 N. gruberi BDF 15.4 25 15.4 99 177 Rubin et al, 1983

^a: product of disinfectant concentration (C) in mg/l and contact time (t) in minutes for 99% inactivation
^b: BDF: buffered demand free
^c: <7um: with <7um particles
^d: ND: Not done or no data
^e: >7um: with >7um particles
^f: Not to be used for Drinking water due to residual level greater than 2 mg/L as stipulated by EPA
^g: Not recommended for Drinking water due to residual range being greater than 2 mg/L as stipulated by EPA
(Sobsey, 1989)

Table 2: Inactivation of Health-related Microbes in Water by Chloramines Microbe Water Cl2 Residual (mg/l) Temp(°C) Time(min) Reduction(%) Estimate Cta References Bacteria pH <= 7.0 S. typhimurium & S. sonnei 1% sewage 0.4-1.5 20 NDb 90 8.5 Snead et al, 1980 M. fortuitum BDFc 3.25 20 50 90 2667 Engelbrecht et al, 1977 pH > 7.0 E. coli BDF 1.9-2.2 5 51-59 99 113 Scarpino, 1984 S. typhimurium & S. sonnei 1% sewage 0.4-1.5 20 ND 90 40 Snead et al, 1980 Viruses pH > 7.0 Polio 1 BDF 5-22 5 170 99 1420 Scarpino, 1984 Polio 1 1° effl. 1-10 25 60-308 99 ca. 345 Fujioka et al, 1983 Hepatitis A BDF 10 5 117 99.99 ca. 592 Sobsey et al, 1988 Coliphage MS2 BDF 10 5 >>60 ca. 2100 Sobsey et al, 1988 Rotavirus SA11 dispersed BDF 10 5 366-402 99 4034 Berman and Hoff, 1984 Rotavirus SA11 cell-assoc. BDF 10 5 570-636 99 6124 Berman and Hoff, 1984 Protozoan Cysts pH <= 7.0 G. muris BDF 1.5-2.6 3 188-296 99 430-580 Meyer, 1982 G. muris BDF 6.35 5 220 99 ca. 1400 Rubin, 1988 G. muris BDF 1.5-30 15 99 ca. 1000 Rubin, 1988 pH > 7.0 G. muris BDF 1.5-30 15 99 ca. 600 Rubin, 1988

^a: product of disinfectant concentration (C) in mg/l and contact time (t) in minutes for 99% inactivation
^b:ND: Not done or no data
^c: BDF: buffered demand free
(Sobsey, 1989)

Filtration

Table 3. Reduction Value (log10) by Filtration Microbe Reduction Value (log10) Reference Minimum a Maximum b Porous ceramic filtration Total Coliform 2 Lantagne 2001 E. coli 2 Brown 2007 Klebsiella terrigena 6 Sobsey 2002 Polioviruses 0.5 4 Sobsey 2002 Rotaviruses 0.5 4 Sobsey 2002 Cryptosporidium parvum 4 6 Lantagne 2001 Giardia lamblia 4 6 Lantagne 2001 Biosand filtration E. coli 1 3 Hijnen 2004, Elliott 2008 Clostridia 1 3 Hijnen 2004, Elliott 2008 Echovirus 12 0.5 3 Hijnen 2004, Elliott 2008 MS2-bacteriophages 0.5 1.5 Hijnen 2004, Elliott 2008 PRD1-bacteriophages 0.5 2 Hijnen 2004, Elliott 2008 Cryptosporidium parvum 2 5 Hijnen 2004 Giardia lamblia 2 5 Hijnen 2004

^a: expected in actual field practice when done by relatively unskilled persons who apply the treatment to waters of varying quality and where there are minimum facilities or supporting instruments;
^b: by skilled operators who are supported with instrumentation and other tools to maintain the highest level of performance in waters of predictable and unchanging quality.

Pathogen Occurrence in Water Sources

Ground Water

Table 1. Pathogens in Groundwater Pathogen Location Presence/Absence Concentration a Note References Total Cultural Enteric Viruses (BGM b) Missoula, MT Eight Wells from Unconfined Aquifer n = 7  % positive = 0 Min: < 0.67 Max: < 4.05 Avg: < 1.74 Std: < 1.43 Unit: MPN/1000L Water samples from wells beneath and adjacent to the drainfield of the septic tanks were collected. Please see the virus data in septic tanks in Table Y. DeBorde et al, 1998 Total Cultural Enteric Viruses (BGM b) Nottingham and Birmingham, UK Two Sandstone Aquifers n = 107  % positive = 10 Detection limit: 1000 Min: 5000 Max: 10,000 Avg: 1382 Std: 1670 Unit: PFU/1000L Only two quantifiable samples were found. Powell et al, 2003 Six virus groups c (qRT-PCR) Madison, WI Six municipal water-supply wells from sandstone aquifer n = 147  % positive = 47 Max: 6.27 Avg: 0.65 Unit: Gene Copies/L Virus levels in Lake Mendota and sewage influent were also analyzed. Bradbury et al, 2010 Five virus groups d (RT-PCR) La Crosse, WI Six drinking-water supply wells n = 48  % positive = 50 Occurrence of virus in river samples was also analyzed. Borchardt et al, 2004 Five virus groups d (RT-PCR) Madison, WI Three wells from confined bedrock aquifer n = 30  % positive = 23 One well is located in a suburban area from which no positive sample was found. The other two wells located in highly urbanized areas from which 7 positives were found. Borchardt et al, 2007 Five virus groups d (RT-PCR) Wisconsin Fifty private household wells n = 194  % positive = 2.6 All samples were negative for culturable viruses. Borchardt et al, 2003 Four virus groups e (RT-PCR) United States n = 448  % positive = 31.5 Groundwater were collected from 448 sites in 35 states in US.  % positive for each specific virus was also reported. Abbaszadegan et al, 2003 Total Cultural Enteric Viruses (BGM b) United States n = 442  % positive = 4.8 Min: 0.9 Max: 18.6 Unit: MPN/1000L Total Cultural Enteric Viruses (MA-104) Quebec, Canada Twelve municipalities n = 113  % positive = 8 Min: 3 Max: 589 Unit: MPN/1000L Municipalities were divided into 3 groups: group A with no known microbial contamination; group B with groundwater sporadically contaminated by total coliform; group C were historic and continuous contaminated by total coliforms and fecal coliforms. No virus was found in A. Virus was found in one sample in B and 8 samples in C. Locas et al, 2007 Total Cultural Enteric Viruses (BGM b) Quebec, Ontario, and Alberta of Canada 25 sites n = 130  % positive = 0.8 10 MPN/1000L One sample was positive in Quebec site. None was positive in other two sites. Locas et al, 2008 Total Cultural Enteric Viruses (BGM b) Long Island Three wells n = 30  % positive = 20 Min: 343 Max: 2800 Avg: 1030 Std: 898 Unit: PFU/1000L The recovery of viruses from groundwater established the ability of virus particles to penetrate these shallower basins (18 to 34 feet) from wastewater treatment plant. Vaughn et al, 1978

^a: All averages included negative samples reported at detection limit
^b: Cell culture line
^c: Enteroviruses, adenoviruses, rotavirus, hepatitis A virus (HAV), and norovirus genogroups I and II
^d: Enteroviruses, rotavirus, hepatitis A virus, and norovirus genogroups I and II
^e: Enteroviruses, rotavirus, hepatitis A virus, and norwalk virus

Table 2. Decay rates of viruses in groundwater Viruses Location Temperature °C Decay rate -[(log10PFU)/day] Viruses Location Temperature °C Decay rate -[(log10PFU)/day] Viruses Location Temperature °C Decay rate -[(log10PFU)/day] Echovirus 1 Wisconsin 4 ND a MS-2 bacteriophage Wisconsin 4 0.020 Poliovirus 1 Wisconsin 4 ND 12 0.066 12 0.093 12 0.060 23 ND 23 0.244 23 ND Arizona 4 ND Arizona 4 0.064 Arizona 4 ND 12 ND 12 0.162 12 ND 23 0.188 23 0.578 23 0.357 North Carolina 4 ND North Carolina 4 0.013 North Carolina 4 ND 12 0.180 12 0.063 12 0.126 23 ND 23 0.225 23 ND University of Arizona 4 ND University of Arizona 4 0.025 University of Arizona 4 ND 12 ND 12 0.040 12 ND 23 0.628 23 0.325 23 0.676 New York 12 0.053 New York 12 0.036 New York 12 0.043 Texas 13 0.109 Texas 13 0.096 Texas 13 0.087 California 17 0.091 California 17 0.075 California 17 0.081 18 0.151 18 0.082 18 0.185

^a: ND, Not done
(Yates et al, 1985)

Pathogen Specific

Dose Response

Pathogens with oral data available

Campylobacter (human)
Cryptosporidium (human)
Echovirus (human)
Entamoeba coli (human)
Enteroviruses
Escherichia coli (human)
enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli
Francisella tularensis
Giardia (human and animals)
Rhinovirus (human)
Shigella species (human)
Vibrio cholera (human)

References

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Berman, D. and Hoff, J.C. (1984) Inactivation of simian rotavirus SA11 by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and monochloramine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 48: 317-323 Full text

Berman, D., Rice, E.W. and Hoff, J.C. (1988) Inactivation of particle-associated coliforms by chlorine and monochloramine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 507-512 Full text

Borchardt M., Bertz, P., Spencer, S. and Battigelli, D. (2003) Incidence of Enteric Viruses in Groundwater from Household Wells in Wisconsin. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 69(2): 1172–1180. Full text

Borchardt M., Bradbury, K., Gotknowitz, M., Cherry, J. and Parker, B. (2007) Human Enteric Viruses in Groundwater from a Confined Bedrock Aquifer. Environmental Science & Technology. 41, 6606-6612. Full text

Borchardt M., Haas N and Hunt R. (2004) Vulnerability of drinking-water wells in La Crosse, Wisconsin, to enteric-virus contamination from surface water contributions. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 70(10): 5937-5946. Full text

Bradbury K, Borchardt M, Gotkowitz M and Spencer S. (2010) Human viruses as tracers of wastewater pathways into deep municipal wells. Final report to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Full text

Brown, J., Sobsey, M.,and Proum, S. Use of Ceramic Water Filters in Cambodia.; World Bank: Washington, DC, August, 2007. Full text

Campbell, I., Tzipori, S., Hutchison, G. and Angus, K.W. (1982) Effect of disinfectants on survival of Cryptosporidium oocysts. Vet. Rec. 111:414-415

Carson, L.A., Petersen, N.J., Favero, M.S. and Aguero, S.M. (1978) Growth characteristics of atypical mycobacteria in water and their comparative resistance to disinfectants. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 36: 839-846 Full text

Churn, C.C., Boardman, C.D. and Bates, R.C. (1984) The inactivation kinetics of H-1 parvovirus by chlorine. Water Res. 18: 195-203 Full text

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de Jonckheere, J and van de Voorde, H. (1976) Differences in destruction of cysts of pathogenic and nonpathogenic Naegleria and Acanthamoeba by chlorine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 31: 294-297 Full text

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EPA Exposure Factors Handbook

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Grabow, W.O.K., Gauss-Muller, V., Prozesky, O.W. and Deinhardt, F. (1983) Inactivation of Hepatitis A virus and indicator organisms in water by free chlorine residuals. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 46: 619-624 Full text

Haas, C.N., Keralius, M.G., Brncich, D.M., and Zapkin, M.A. (1986) Alteration of chemical and disinfectant properties of hypochlorite by sodium, potassium, and lithium. Environ. Sci. Technol. 20: 822-826 Full text

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